May Madness Julius Caesar Presentation Link - Enjoy!!!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8WaH6NJVr8&feature=youtube_gdata_player

Pic of Political Cartoon

I should have attached this to my last post.....

Political Cartoon - China

Historical Significance:

          The Qianlong Emperor allowed trade with foreigners only to exist at the single port of Guangzhou.  The foreign goods from China were in great demand back in Europe; thus, Europeans, especially the British, were eager to trade with China in order to profit by selling the goods in Europe.  However, the Chinese demand for European goods was nonexistent.  Thus, it became extremely difficult for the Europeans to trade with the Chinese, primarily because they had nothing to offer - besides silver bullion.  Thus, the British merchants paid for Chinese silk, porcelain, and tea with silver bullion.  Since silver bullion was a highly prized item, the British sought alternatives with which they could trade with the Chinese.  The British eventually turned to opium, an illegal drug manufactured in their Indian colonies, which Chinese readily accepted as an alternative to silver bullion, despite its significantly lower value.  The Chinese significantly were at a disadvantage as a result of this switch in trading items - drug addicts began to become commonplace and China's reserve of silver bullion was significantly lowered.  The Chinese realized this and placed Lin Zexu in charge of destroying the opium trade.  This anti-opium policy ignited a conflict of wars known as the Opium Wars, in which the Chinese suffered a humiliating defeat to the British, who cut off access to the Grand Canal.  Because Britain won the Opium Wars, it was able to dictate the terms of China's surrender.  The end result was a series of treaties known as the "unequal treatises".  They were named so due to the unequal quality of the agreement, which heavily favored the British.  According to the agreement, opium trade between Britain and China was restored, and China was forced to cede 5 major ports and the island of Hong Kong.  Additionally, the Chinese were forced to grant extraterritoriality to British inhabitants in China in a series of treaties including the Treaty of Nanjing.  As a final result of this altercation, China was weakened in that it lost a majority of its silver bullion and suffered socially as a result of the re-opened silver trade.  On the other hand, the British benefitted handsomely from this reopened trade with China.


Cartoon Explanation:

          As depicted in my political cartoon, the economies of both China and Britain are being compared to each other via a scale.  The scale is heavily tilted in favor of the British, indicating that the scale, symbolic of China's treaties with Britain, is unbalanced.  The position of the British in relation to China indicates that the items on China's section of the scale outweigh the items that belong to China.  There are far more items on Britain's end of the scale than China's end of the scale, signifying that Britain is benefitting more from the treaty than China.  On the British half of the scale items are a pyramid of blocks of silver, a chest containing a series of treaties, and a British man happily holding two of them into the air.  As a result of the Opium War, Britain's reopened trade with China resulted in Britain reserving its bullion, while draining the bullion from China - thus, a great amount of silver is represented on the British half of the scale.  Within the chest on top of the pyramid of silver blocks are many papers, two of which are being held by a British individual.  The British man is holding one paper entitled "Declaration of Chinese Port Ownership," which reflects the 5 ports that the Chinese were forced to cede to the British as a result of post-war negotiations.  The other paper reads "Treaty of Nanjing," which was among the first treaties written as part of the post-war agreement.  There are numerous papers remaining inside the chest, indicating that there are many other treaties which also favor the British over the Chinese.  As one could imagine, the British individual looks pleased with the agreement.  On the Chinese half of the scale is a lone individual smoking opium, and he is accompanied by a sac of opium.  His eyes are crossed and seems to be going crazy, reflecting the social changes that occurred as a result of the unfair post-war negotiations.  There is nothing positive about the Chinese half of the scale - there is no bullion (the British have taken it back) and they have lost a right to govern their ports.  It is no wonder that the man standing on the Chinese half of the scale looks miserable.

"World War in World History" Document Analysis

Prompt: To what extent was WWI a global war? Why did most Asians fight for the allies if they were pro-German?

Answer: World War I was a global war with respect to the nationality of the members fighting the war, even though it seemed to fit the qualifications of an "European civil war" from the perspective of Asians.  The "internal character" of World War I can be attributed to the fact that the only countries engaged in war were those of Europe.  Though Asia and the United States both had prominent roles in the war, they in aspect played mere supporting positions of the larger European powers around which the crux of the war was centered.  However, it can be seen from a different angle that World War I was a global war in that it involved countries from around the four corners of the globe.  Of the global powers other than the Europeans involved in the War, the Asians played prominent roles, eventually joining the efforts of the Allies against the Entente Powers.  Though the Asian powers are noted as supporting the Allied Powers, a majority of the Asian population did not have a preference over who won the great European "civil war".  However, the general Asian population resented many of the Allied Powers because they attacked and imperialized many areas of Asia with little regard to Asian sentiment; in contrast, the Germans had "no tradition of Asian conquest," and thus would have been expected to appeal more than the Allied Powers.  However, in the name of democracy, a majority of Asian states came to the defense of the Allied powers.  Allied powers promised to defend democracies, which would result in political stability in Asia, a factor that would play a great role in settling Asian society and political policy.  Thus, even though Asians were pro-German due as a result of their resent for territorial expansion of Allied powers, they sided with the Allies to defend democracy.

Pg. 913 Document Based Question

Prompt: Compare and contrast the sort of adjectives Kipling uses to describe native people as opposed to Europeans; how does his very language usage convey his sense of white superiority?

Response: To convey his sense of white supremacy and superiority over other indigenous people and foreigners, Kipling uses different adjectives to describe different individuals of different skin color, emphasizing his view that imperial rule is mandatory in colonies such as the British one in India.  Kipling first refers to the subject people of the British as a "breed," implying that the native Indians are animal like.   Since animals must be tamed in order to be controlled and behave properly, Kipling is upholding his view that the British must "tame" the Indians metaphorically to keep stability in the region.   Despite the fact that Kipling is attempting to justify British control in India, he is not stating that any type of rule is sufficient.  He believes that the ruling should be orderly, not morally low or "tawdry". 

To describe the Indians, on the other hand, Kipling uses diminutive and servile forms of adjectives.  Kipling describes the Indians as "silent" and "sullen," indicating that the subjects of British hegemony are expected to obey,  command, and respect those in control, the British.   The word "sullen" indicates, however, that the Indian subjects were not fond of the British rule in India, despite the generous way in which they ruled.   

The "burden" that the Imperial British are faced with as a result of their hegemony is described by many adjectives, leading the reader to believe that it was a great struggle for the British to provide India with order and imperial rule.  The burden is metaphorically described as a "heavy harness," indicating that it took a lot of effort for the British to maintain order.  Though India provided many trade opportunities for England, it also must have a heavy burden regarding other British affairs. 

Map of Global Hegemony

When  creating this map, several aspects of the locations of imperialism areas were outstanding.  Here is a list of those aspects I found somewhat interesting:

1. Russia by far has the largest land mass; however, Russia has no other states within it.  In fact, most of the other colored in countries and territories could probably fit within the single state of Russia.

2. England seemed to consist of the most widespread areas of land it controlled as colonies.  Every one of its controlled territories was specific in the goods it exported and produced, so Britain must have profited from its colonies.  It is hard to believe that England acquired so much power after only winning the 7 Years' War.

3. I noticed that the Spanish tereitories, especially in Africa, we're very limited despite the greatness of the Spanish state.  Why were they able to colonize and get such a head start in the Americas while obtain almost no land in Africa? (Especially because they are located so close to Africa).

4/4/14 Homework: The Young Turks

Prompt: How do the plans of the Young Turks privilege their own age cohort within the Ottoman Empire, particularly in terms of voting rights and education?

The Young Turks gave specific rights to their own age cohorts within the Ottoman Empire in terms of voting rights and education, primarily to increase their say in Ottoman policy and governance.  In the Proclamation of the Young Turks, the third point of the constitution states that all citizens of the Ottoman Empire (not including slaves and those without citizenship) are given the right to vote.  This does not mean that they are forced to vote, however.  In giving younger Ottomans a chance to vote, they were given a greater power in determining foreign and internal policy, thus privileging the Young Turks.  In order to eventually occupy high government positions, the Young Turks must have placed great importance on education, which is necessary to all individuals within a smoothly functioning government.  It is due to this reason that the Young Turks provided free education to all individuals regardless of age.  Motivated children and boys would be able to be educated from an early point on in their lives, which would increase the change that they become a highly government official.  They placed the power of schooling and age restrictions in the hands of the government to ensure that all children legally had the same rights, benefits, and opportunities to become educated.  In a broader perspective, the Young Turks privileged their own age cohort within the Ottoman Empire in terms of voting rights and education to increase the likelihood that they are educated and are able to elect each other into high government positions in the future, possibly providing the Young Turks Party to gain power in the Ottoman Empire.

3/28/14 Weekend Homework Assignment

Niall Ferguson's TED Talk Question: Which factors led to the Great Divergence, and how did the Westerners gain an advantage over the rest of the world, allowing them to dominate Easterners?

Answer: Niall Ferguson believes that there were six major aspects about the Western civilization that set the Westerners ahead of the Easterners and led to the Great Divergence.  Ferguson chooses to represent these six characteristics, competition, the scientific revolution, property rights, modern medicine, the consumer society, and worth ethic, as metaphorical "apps," which seem simple on the outside, but contain a great complexity.  There were hundreds of kingdoms within each state during the 1500s in Europe, which provoked innovation and bettered society, whereas in the eastern half of the world, there were far fewer states that required one to pass civil service exams before being able to compete amongst each other.  Western science gave man control over nature through the experimental method, allowing men to apply physics to ballistics, allowing for better weaponry.  However, in Eastern Asia, there is not as much technology or scientific discoveries.  Having the rule of law based on property rights made the difference in between the Eastern and Western hemispheres.  Having more land open to the people rather than passed down hereditarily resulted in more land being used, helping push the Western world ahead of the Eastern world.  Modern medicine aided in fighting infections diseases and increased life expectancies by almost two percent in the Western world rather than in the Eastern world, where there was no concept of medicine.  This allowed for population growth in Western portions of the world, while disease and plagues decimated Eastern populations.  Consumer society was far greater in Western parts of the world, so that people were able to buy the goods produced by businessmen, thus giving a purpose to the industrial revolution.  However, in Eastern portions of the world, people were more inclined towards poverty such as Mahatma Gandhi, who was in a way, a proponent of poverty.  Work ethic can only arise if institutions are present to create the will to work.  In the western half of the world, people originally had better work ethics than people in the Eastern half of the world.  This may have primarily been because there were more institutions in the Western half of the world than in the Eastern half of the world.  It is for these six reasons that the Eastern half of the world fell behind the Western half of the word, resulting in the Great Divergence.


The Stages of a Revolution in <2 Sentences Each:

1. Stage 1: The community is split into two groups of people; those who support the person in authority, such as the king or ruler, or those who are rebelling against the authority.  The schism is result to an unfair taxation or the ruler's inability to rule, thus angering its constituents.
2. Stage 2: The factions are again split into moderates and radicals, and the vast majority of the population supports the moderates because the radicals are...too radical; however, the radicals have a greater sense of righteousness, which enables them to take over and instate terror.  
3. The Final Stage of Revolution: In the final stage of revolution, the community begins to moderate itself and shun those who are radicals, causing in most cases a dictatorship to be reinstated in which members of the previous ruling council are brought back.  Imperial nationalism is a direct consequence of the fervor of the radicals diminishing.

Adam Smith Questions

1. Are there any cases in which people venture in to the economy or start a business for the general good?  What reasons would people have for doing this?
2. Why do only beggars choose to "depend chiefly upon the benevolence of his fellow citizens"?
3. Is there any occupation you believe has more people who base their actions on the well-bring of society more than others?

Islamic Empires Map 3/18

Olaudah Equiano on the Middle Passage

Prompt: On the basis of Equiano's account, what measures did the crews of slave ships take to ensure maximum profits from their business of transporting human cargoes?

Answer: According to Olaudah Equiano's account, to ensure the greatest potential profits from their business of transporting human cargoes, the crews of slave trade ships took many precautionary measures.   To ensure that they would receive the maximum reward for their slaves,  crews of the slave ships needed to make sure that the slaves were in prime condition.  Thus, they forced the slaves on their ships to eat, whether the wanted to or not. Those who resisted the food were severely flogged as a result.  To prevent potential slaves (or sources of money) from jumping overboard into the ocean, crews of slave ships whipped those for hours who attempted to jump off the boat, thus dissuading others from following the examples of others.  When several slaves perished by jumping into the waters, the crews began to lock up the slaves under the deck and chained.  These were the primary measures taken to ensure that the crews of slave ships obtained the maximum profits from their business of transporting human cargoes.

Born With a Silver Spoon Reading Questions

Questions: Where is the silver going? Where is it coming from? Who are the major players in the 'silver trade'?

Where is the sliver going to?

During the 16th century, during which international trade began its boom, China was the predominant buyer of silver in the world.  China accepted from and traded for silver with numerous silver-exporting countries such as Japan and Spanish America.  The importance and abundance of silver trade in China is accurately depicted in many writings and writers from the time period.  For example, Godinho was a Chinese writer who described China as the world's silver suction pump.  The Chinese particularly wanted this precious metal because the market value of silver throughout China was double its value

elsewhere, thus a valuable commodity.

Where is the silver going from?

The predominant sellers, or producers, of silver during the beginning of international trade were Spanish America, which included areas such as Mexico and Peru.  These areas were able to produce up to 150,000 tons of silver between 1500 and 1800 because they had the greatest quantity of silver.  In comparison to areas such as Europe, which may have exhausted their silver resources or never had them in the first place, silver reserves in Spanish America were plentiful.  The indigenous already had mined for much of the silver, and they served as slaves.  This increased labor in Spanish American mines led to a boom in production of silver in Spanish America.  

Who are the major players in the silver trade?

In the beginning time period of the silver trade, the dominant players were the Spanish Americans, Europe, and China.  During this period of time, the Europeans (most notably the Spanish) established colonies in Mexico and Peru.  They forced the indigenous people to mine silver for them, and the silver that they extracted was sent to two major places.  Much of the silver was sent straight back to European colonies, while lesser, though equally substantial, amounts were used in trade with China.  Thus, China, the Spanish American Colonies, and Europe were major players in early silver trade.  

Explorers HW 3/28

Prompt: Does Columbus deserve his own holiday? Why does he have one? Should we reconsider?

Everybody regards Columbus Day, Monday, October 18, as the day which students have off from school, but most fail to recognize its actual importance.  Columbus Day marks the date at which Christopher Columbus and his crew aboard the Santa Maria reached the Americas for the first time (assuming that Menzie's argument is invalid!).  Technically speaking, historians are not 100% sure that the "discovery" of the Americas occurred on October 18, 1492.  However, I believe that this date is in fact important, regardless of whether it is the actual date during which Columbus found the Americas.  Columbus day, in effect, is symbolic of discovery as a whole, not only as it relates to Columbus and his "discovery" of the Americas, but also discoveries of places and technologies that have improved the world we lived in today.  I think that Columbus Day is an integral aspect of American culture, as it gives Americans a sense of pride and dignity.  However, it can also be seen from a negative perspective.  Columbus Day also marks the date after which the Native American inhabitants began their decline as a result of foreign invasion.  But that is not the question.....Whether or not Columbus Day is the most important holiday to exist is a matter of perspective and judgement, but it is for certain that Columbus deserves some form of recognition of his feat of discovering the Americas.  Of course, this is a hotly debated topic as some states recognize Columbus Day on a larger scale than others.  Even Spain, which is not remotely located in the Americas, observes their own form of Columbus Day.  Regardless of what others say, I believe that we owe Columbus respect - without him, we wouldn't be where we are today!

First DBQ Reflection

Today in class, we took our first Document-Based Question (more commonly known as the DBQ), and the results were quite conclusive.  I was extremely familiar with the content, primarily because we went over the material in class the previous day.  As far as answering the questions and coming up with the right answer is concerned, I felt as though I was fully prepared.  The most problematic error that I faced while writing the DBQ was time-related.  After the time was called, I had only finished discussing the eight documents.  I was able to start writing the "why is the source credible?" section, and all of the ideas were implanted in my mind; however, I was unable to finish this section as well as the additional source document.  Therefore, it is safe to conclude that I took too much time writing the document analyses.  This has been a reoccurring problem, not only with the DBQ, but also with other essays I have written.  I had all the knowledge I needed to score well on the essay, but the time was my downfall.  I feel that writing practice essays, especially when being given the material in advance is an awesome way to get to know the style of writing we have to be accustomed to, since it is distinct from the Change and Continuity Over Time and Compare/Contrast Essays.  This also allows us to work on out time management and other skills without having to worry about the actual information.

DBQ Sample HW Assignment

Prompt: Do you buy Menzie's argument that Zheng He's fleet made it to America before Columbus? Evaluate the evidence he used and explain why or why not?

In this given video, Menzie asserts that Zheng He's Ming fleet made it to America and traveled around the world in 1421, 58 years before Columbus was said to have first "discovered" America.  Menzie cannot rely, however, on many of the sources he would like to because Zheng He's project was stopped early and all written evidence destroyed.  Because there are very few, if any, remaining documents concerning the journey, his argument is not very strong.

Menzie states, at the beginning of his argument, that all European colonists had a map and a preconceived notion that the Americas existed, but he failed to provide any evidence that the Europeans did in fact know that America did exist.  

To back his argument, he asks scholars their opinions on the matter; however, the information they provide him with are merely THEIR OPINIONS.  There is no telling whether or not their rationale is correct.  What would help his argument would have been a primary source document written by a Chinese sailor who joined them on their journey.  

Menzie establishes that the Chinese Ming fleet was greater in aspect and in size than the Columbus's fleet.  He is comparing the fleets to each other, and this is failing to substantiate his argument.  The question is not whether the Chinese were ABLE to sail to the Americas more easily than Columbus, but whether or not the Chinese ACTUALLY completed the voyage.  Discussing how the Chinese had fleets greater than Columbus just indicates that the Chinese were more sophisticated than Columbus, not that they made it to America first. 

He does bring up a map, which he declares will help substantiate his theory, but it is only one map suggesting such an occurrence.  This is the only part of his argument that makes sense.  

He believes that the Chinese Junks which presumably carried the Chinese to the Americas were struck by a hurricane, and that the 700 Junks were wrecked and beached.  Wow.  This is much too general of a conclusion for it to be even considered.  Menzie cannot assume that a hurricane struck and wrecked the ships.  His entire story is based on the assumption that a hurricane destroyed their Junks and they were marooned on the island.  There is no evidence or proof that backs up this statement alone, so it is impossible for the rest of his argument to be structurally sound.  

For these reasons, I do not believe that the Chinese came upon the Americas before Columbus did.  

Podcast 123

3 Things I learned, which I previously had NO IDEA about...

1. The Aztecs migrated to Mesoamerica and established the largest and arguably most ruthless pre-Spanish Empire in the Americas throughout the course of 200 years.  This is an immensely short period of time for an empire to become established, particularly because it should, in aspect take awhile to become accustomed to a new area after a migration from a foreign area.  
2. The name "Aztec" comes from the word "Aztlan," referring to the mythical place of their origin.  The name they would have used to refer to themselves is "Meshiko," (sp?) which gives us the modern name "Mexico".  
3. Public sacrifices were done to please the gods, especially blood-letting rituals.  However, these were often means of public ostentation.  This is especially surprising, because one would not think that religion and public humiliation would work hand-in-hand with each other and be associated via the same actions.  

2 Things I found Interesting

1. The pyramids erected by the Egyptians during the Old Kingdom are strikingly similar to the pyramids built by the Aztecs.  This as well as the genetic evidence that compares the DNA of Egyptians and Mesoamericans shows that peoples from Eastern Asia may have migrated to Egypt and later to Mesoamerica, passing through the Bering land bridge. 
2. Though the Aztecs were highly specialized in many areas, including metalworking of copper, gold, and silver created a calendar, and were highly intelligent, they are considered to be stone-age people.  This is probably due to the technology they lacked.  They couldn't create metal weapons, and they did not use animals.  This limited their mobility and what they could carry, preventing them from being able to be classified as nomads.

1 Thing I would ask the Aztecs

1. What was the most difficult part of your existence?  Was foraging for food, resisting disease, or forming and maintaining a social hierarchal the most difficult part of your civilization?  Why was this so difficult?  What did you attempt to do to ease these problems.

St. Thomas Aquilas Document Questions

Question: What are the five examples of proof that Aquinas gives to prove the existence of God?

According to the given excerpt/document from Fordham University, the author believes there are five methods of reasoning which can be used to prove the legitimate existence of God.  The author first states that an object or thing, even if it is not real, can be brought into the world via something that exists, using fire as an example. He says that fire is not actual, but can be brought into presence with the help of incendiary tools. Similarly, he reasons that some nonexistent entity such as God can be brought into the world via "some first mover, which is itself moved by nothing---and this all men know as God".  The second area of proof the author uses is from the "nature of existent cause".  The author defines God as "the first efficient cause," indicating that God gives rise to other causes, which constitute the world we live in.  This is similar to a a chain, where an existent entity gives rise to another, which gives rise to another, similar to how a single chain allows more chains to be linked to it, resulting eventually in an entire chain of links.  The third proof the author provides in his attempt to prove the existence of God is via the concept that things take their beginnings preexisting entities.  Events occurring are not accidental, God is the only thing that exists through its own nature and is the beginning of all causes and necessary for the existence of all things.  The fourth piece of proof is derived form the concept that all things vary in degrees in severity but approach the greatest.  The author uses the example that states that there are varying intensities of heat, for example.  The level of heat increasingly increases, until it reaches a maximum.  The author argues that God is the entity that represents the maximum degree of severity for all aspects which govern the universe.  The greatest is the cause of all things of its kind, and therefore, God is the cause of existence of all things, including goodness and perfection.  The fifth piece of evidence brought up by the author in his attempt to persuade the reader to accept the existence of God pertains to the natural phenomenon and operation of natural objects or bodies, which occur in accordance with a higher plan and are not occurring randomly.  They have a purpose; things with no intelligence are directed by a knowing and intelligent power that is manifested in the form of God.  Therefore, the author rests his case, his attempt to prove the existence of God based on the writings of Aquinas, on the 5 presented pieces of evidence/proof.  

My Beautiful Map of Africa

I legitimately spent 75 minutes on this masterpiece...

Chapter 19 Homework #1 - Griots

Would you like learn history verbally like the Griots in Africa? Why or why not?

Though leaning history verbally as the Griots in Africa did would be an interesting experience, I would not base my understanding of history solely on the words of others.  One reason why I would not base my COMPLETE understanding of history on stories of oral tradition is that they are, as one might expect, stories.  This means that the storyteller is not obligated to tell the truth about a situation or occurrence.  This means a storyteller could literally make up history and incorporate it into a seemingly legitimate story.  If a storyteller was biased for any reason, he or she could bend and distort the story in any way they seem fit in order to cast a positive light on their perspective of a situation; or they could even omit important pieces of information or evidence as part of a story, thus creating a false illusion.  For example, a griot of Tribe A might be telling a story about a war with Tribe B.  Even if the members of Tribe A were responsible for the war, the griot will be inclined to put his own tribe in a positive light.  He could omit Tribe A's atrocious deeds, while emphasizing, for example, the destructive nature of Tribe B.  In this way, a listener would have to infer from the limited information given to him or her that Tribe B was in the wrong, though historically Tribe A may have been fully responsible for the war.  Another reason why learning history verbally from a person, specifically by a method known as oral tradition, is that the stories are often distorted as they are passed on from generation.  Similar to the game of Telephone, any story told and passed down many generations could be distorted.  For example, a story of a merchant traveling from Egypt to Nubia may be told to Generation A.  As Generation A tells Generation B of this feat, it develops into an extreme adventure, and as Generation B tells it to Generation C, it has morphed into a exhilarating story of a 15-year old boy traveling from Egypt to China by himself, having had to defend himself from robbers and escape death on numerous occasions.  It is for these reasons why I feel leaning history verbally would seem inaccurate compared to written documents or primary source information.  

Mongol Trial Day 9 (1/15/14)

Today was the last day of our trial :(

We started the class with the cross-examination and the direct examination of Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson.  Michelle performed very well and exposed many of the weaknesses of the defense's argument.  The defense's lawyers did not ask much, so there is nothing left to say.  Subsequent to our cross-examination of Kublai Khan, the concluding statements took the stage.  The prosecution's closing statement went before the defense's.  Ashay said the closing statement for the prosecution and clearly conveyed the major points around which the entire trial was centered on.  These included discussing the perjuries committed by the defense (some of their witnesses modified their background stories mid-trial and thus were able to evade many of out lawyers' questions) and the overall major points of the entire trial (which facts and which interrogations supported the claims we made as well as holes in the defense's arguments).  The trial concluded with the defense's closing statements, performed by Olivia.  Though the wording and tone of their closing statement was indeed strong, they misrepresented the situation and made a few errors.  Further specification (including examples) of the closing statements can be seen on twitter #mongolprosecution4.  We are anxiously awaiting the results of the trial, which are going to be revealed tomorrow!  I already know we won though, so it takes away from the fun....

In conclusion, the trial was an extremely memorable experience, as it not only taught us about the nomads of the steps of Asia including the Mongols, but it also served to be quite enjoyable.  The only remaining part of this project is to summarize the entire trial via Storify.  We are beginning to look into the Storify App and figure out how we are going to approach this aspect of the project.

We'll keep you posted!

Mongol Trial Day 8 (1/14/14)

Today, the second part of our trial, was a phenomenal success for the prosecution!  

I am sure we made almost no mistakes in proving that the Mongols were in fact guilty of terrorizing, kidnapping, and genocide.  We started today's trial by finishing questioning the prosecution's witnesses, the Chinese peasant, the European knight, and the Persian peasant.  Our direct examiners and  cross-examiners, Maya and Michelle, did an excellent job of questioning out witnesses.   They, as planned, extorted the information necessary to prove that the Mongols were in fact guilty of the three specified charges.  Maya systematically questioned each of the witnesses and asked them thorough questions, which would incriminate the Mongols and Genghis Khan.  Michelle too asked questions which led the witnesses to claim that the Mongols should be guilty of the three charges.  Soon after, the cross-examinations began.  Our lawyers, Maya and Michelle, interrogated Kublai Khan, Mongeke Khan, Subedei Khan, Ogodie Khan, and Mongke Khan.  I think it is safe to conclude that Michelle and Maya obliterated the defense.  Our lawyers made factual, convincing, and logical arguments to interrogate the defense's witnesses and force them to divulge the truth about the brutality and cruelty of the Mongols.  Whereas Maya took a direct approach and systematically asked the witnesses questions, Michelle approached the situation via an entirely different method.  She asked roundabout questions, eventually circling in on the question at hand.  When the witnesses were expecting it the least, she asked them the question that really mattered and caught them off guard.  This method worked in almost every situation.  It is due to these techniques employed by Maya and Michelle that we are confident in the prosecution's lead over the defense.  

During the interrogations of the witnesses, there were a few problems which arose.  During the trial of the prosecution's witnesses, one particular problem that arose was that the defense asked numerous questions that were irrelevant to the case.  They had no bearing on whether the Mongols were guilty nor whether they actually committed any of the three given crimes.  It is for this reason that we (especially Michelle) objected to many of the defense's statements of irrelevance and the defense was told to get to their point.  During the interrogation of the defense's witnesses, many problems also occurred.  In a few instances when Michelle was interrogating the witnesses, there were several occasions during which the witnesses' stories were changed on the spot to refute our lawyers' claims.  They stated facts that were incorrect and thus seemed as though they were leading the trial.  However, we will address this incongruity in our closing statement tomorrow (which will be made by Ashay).  Another problem that arose during the questioning of the defense's witnesses was that the inferiors to the Great Khan, (Mongeke, Subedei, Ogodie, and Mongke) constantly claimed that they were under the orders of the Great Khan, Kublai.  Given this, it was nearly impossible for our cross-examiners to extract any information from the defense's witnesses when the constantly were saying "I just did what I was told".  The only way for the prosecution to solidly condemn the defense's witnesses would have been to interrogate Kublai Khan himself.  However, when the time came for Kublia to be interrogated, he was not present in the courtroom; thus, it was impossible for us to examine him.  Another hole in the defense's argument was that they still focused their argument on the basis that they allowed religious tolerance.  We don't care about religious tolerance, we are concerned with the three charges: genocide, kidnapping, and terrorism.  We again expressed our discontent in our tweets.  

I can't wait for tomorrow; according to the schedule, we will be starting with the two closing statements of the defense and prosecution.  During our closing statement, we will finally be able to voice our discontent with the defense's argument and emphasize that the Mongols are guilty of crimes against humanity.  The defense's closing statement will be very interesting....

If the prosecution performed as well as we think we did, I think we should easily overcome the defense's argument.  But again, that is just my opinion....  I can't wait to see whether the Mongols are finally put behind bars or are unjustly released into the wild so they can create havoc and destruction once again!

Mongol Trial Day 7 (1/13/14)

Today was the day!  The Mongol Trial went smoothly as I could have imagined it to.

My opening statement was strong and bold, and I am sure it shook the jury and the defendants!

Today in class, we proceeded to finish the two opening statements as well as three of our witnesses (including the cross examination and direct examinations for each).  The The defendants (Dillon (Pope Innocent IV), Hafsa (the Abbasid Caliph), and Rachel (Chinese Peasant)) all supported the prosecution of the Mongols and did a great job as witnesses!  The opening statement of the defense team was strong; however I feel as though it misrepresented the situation and falsified many facts.  First off, the defense team denied killing 50 million people....its a fact.  Secondly, the defense was wrong in saying that the Mongols committed these odious crimes for the sake of self defense.  This is too historically wrong - the Mongols deliberately attacked others for the sake of the expansion of the Mongol Empire.  A reoccurring problem/hole in the defenses' arguments/opening statements was that they did not discuss the crimes they committed.  They rather focussed on the positive aspects of the Mongols.  I understand where the defense is coming from on this standpoint, but they are not properly addressing the charge at hand: ARE THE MONGOLS GUILTY OF KIDNAPPING, TERRORIZING, AND/OR GENOCIDE?  By focusing on the positives of the Mongols, the defense is beating around the bush and is avoiding being found guilty.

I expressed my concerns for these mistakes via my tweets...who knew tweeting about putting the Mongols on trial could be so much fun.......

At home, I am brainstorming ways to refute the arguments of the defense and come up with possible Tweets.  I contributed to the team blog, and with the help from my team, I know that WE WILL WIN THE TRIAL!!!

I am really enjoying this Mongol Trial!  It has taught me such a great amount of information about the Mongols (and facilitated my reading and understanding of Chapter 18), but it has also been fun at the same time!  I didn't know nearly as much about the trial process and law lingo as I do now, and it has definitely expanded my horizons!

Tomorrow is Long 4, long APWH!  Can't wait to see what surprises (and Tweets) tomorrow brings!

Mongol Trial Day 6 (1/12/14)

Today, I am continuing to revise my opening statement and follow my Aunt's suggestions and mark-ups (see last post...).  She suggested that I include some analytical paragraphs/aspects to my statement.  For example, she told me that it would help to include a paragraph that predicted what the defense would bas their argument around and how we would combat it.  She sent a PDF to me with the corrections I could make to improve my opening statement.  Here are some of the main ideas that I added to my opening statement to improve it:

• The defense is going to argue that the actions of the mongols were justified and that they did not break any laws. The Mongols NEEDED to carry out these actions in order to stabilize and unite their empire.  
• To combat this, we are going to provide evidence from our six witnesses (2 Chinese peasants, a Persian Citizen, an Abbasid Caliph, Pope Innocent IV, and an European Night).  They will give their account of their experiences with the Mongols. 
• After hearing this information, it will be obvious that the defense's argument makes no absolutely no sense an has been rendered invalid.  

After I revised and came up with a final Opening Statement, I continued to start practicing an reciting it.  Though there were many parts of the opening statement which required sheer memorization, I found that memorizing a page-and-a-half wasn't as difficult as I had imagined it to be.  After reading it numerous times over and over again, the opening statement engrained itself into the frontal lobe of my brain.  The opening statement followed a logical progression, and so it was easier for me to follow a single thought process.  Another factor which helped in my preparation was that there was no set boundaries for my statement - as long as I conveyed the same idea to the jury as I had written for my opening statement, there was no difference.  I continued to practice sporadically throughout the day until it was solidified in my head....

Tomorrow, I plan on wearing a suit and tie to simulate the actions and apparel of an actual lawyer.  I hope my preparation pays off tomorrow and we send the Mongol Defendants back to the steppes of central Asia!  

Mongol Trial Day 5 (1/11/14)

Today in class...just kidding, there wasn't class!...

Anyways, thankfully, my aunt was able to get back to me with some important suggestions.  I am currently revising my opening statement as per her comments as well as my own thoughts.  I have realized that in order for my opening statement to be as effective as possible, there must be no room for error, no holes which my opponents can exploit and use to rip my team's argument to shreds.

Just when I thought my opening statement was perfect, I realized that much of my argument consisted of strong statements; however, there was not enough supporting evidence to back up my claims.  I am now going through my textbook and movie notes once again to find the evidence that sticks out like a sore thumb and can augment my argument.  I feel as though it would be somewhat beneficial to connect some of the repercussions of today's crimes to how the Mongols should be punished.  I could also use parallel structure to compare the crimes of the Mongols to crimes committed today.  This would allow listeners to understand how bad the crimes the Mongols committed actually are.  Putting a part of my opening statement in the second person format would allow the listener to feel as though he or she were actually suffering the consequences of Mongolian crimes...

I plan on reciting my opening statement in front of a mirror until I an 100% confident in myself.

Mongol Trial Day 4 (1/10/14)

Today in class, we watched (or rather started) another segment of a video, Tartar Crusaders.  The information in this video was not as helpful to me as it was for out witnesses, as the backgrounds of some of OUR witnesses were thoroughly discussed.  The first segment of the video focused on the people who were affected by the Mongols, and it also discussed a few aspects of Mongol daily life, including how they survived and were able to be mobile conquerors.  The video then switched gears and began to discuss the impact the Mongols had on other regions of the world, their global influences.  They influenced the Crusades launched by Christians to liberate communities taken over by Muslims.  However, the Mongols refused to deal with any pleas the Christians or Muslims made - they simply raided and slaughtered for the fun of it...

After watching the movie clip, we were given additional class time to work on the project.  This day was especially important for the witnesses and the cross-examiners, as the witnesses of the prosecution and defense were revealed to the class. This will provide out cross-examiners with a specific person (or people) they will be targeting on the defense.  However, it also means that the defense knows which witnesses we are going to be using; thus, it is imperative for our witnesses to create a case strong enough that the defense cannot refute our claims to their guilt.  It is important to understand that it goes both ways!

At home, I contributed to our team blog and added extra information that was critical in assessing the progress of our project.  spent time both planning and writing my opening statement.  I created a graphic organizer (not posted for the safety of the prosecution) which highlighted the statements I will be making during the trial in the format of indented bullet points.  After highlighting the main points I am going to say, I began to write an actual opening statement to guide me through my practice in reciting it.  It is similar to my organizer, but my thoughts are more complete, not incomplete and terse as they are on the organizer.  I plan on sending a copy of my opening statement to my aunt, who is a practicing lawyer.  She is currently a partner in her law firm, and she has experience in the subject matter I am asking about.  If she is able to get back to me with any suggestions, I will incorporate them into my opening statement tomorrow and revise it until I find it 100% able to take down the defense!

Mongol Trial Day 3 (1/9/14)

Today in class, we gathered in groups and soon broke into two groups - lawyers and witnesses.  The witnesses confirmed their background stories with each other and posted them to the google-doc we created to share out information.  I think it would be beneficial to add this to out group blog so we can easily access each others' information.  In order to strengthen my argument, I think that including the story of one of our witnesses would strengthen my argument.  I think Tori's story is the most appalling and shocking; therefore, I plan to mention her story in my opening statement.  I think  it would be beneficial for us to utilize out blog even more than we have.

At home, I started off by reviewing my textbook notes and notes.  I am now thinking that the basis of my opening statement will consist primarily of a tragic story, a few STRONG statistics concerning the death and destruction of the Mongols, and possibly a direct quote from Genghis Khan.  Subsequently, I watched John Green's Crash Course on the Mongols.  This video proved to be extremely helpful in my research and in coming up with the material basis for my opening statement.  Included in the video is an argument between proponents of the Mongols, and those who found the Mongols to be "not so great".  John Green first outlined the positive aspects of the Mongol Empire:

• Reinvigorated Eurasian trade
• Increased communication throughout Eurasia via Yam system 
• Cuisine - rice becomes more common in different parts of Eurasia (esp. Persia)
• Forcibly relocated people to different places for different purposes
• Were tolerant of many different religions

Knowing the positive aspects of the Mongols will provide me with possible holes in our team's argument.  When presenting my opening statement and throughout the entire trial, I will be sure NOT to bring up any of these topics.  Avoiding these topics during my opening statement will allow me to prevent any successful rebuttals by the opposing team.  John Green then proceeds to outline the negative aspects of the Mongols.  This information was extremely helpful in augmenting to my argument in that it provided me with strong supporting data as to why the Mongols should be convicted of crimes against humanity

• One such piece o evidence can be seen in a quote by Genghis Khan: "The greatest happiness is to vanquish your enemies, to chase them before you, to rob them of their wealth, to see those dear to them bathed in tears, to clasp to your bosom, their wives and daughters."
• The number of civilians they killed is estimated to be in the millions
• Used biological warfare against their enemies by catapulting the plague-infested corpses of the dead into cities of their enemies.  This contributed significantly to the spread of the Black Death, which is responsible for approximately 20 million deaths in Eurasia.

I am continuing to brainstorm other ideas for my opening statement which will capture the attention of those poised to defend the Mongols against the prosecution. 

Mongol Trial Day 2 (1/8/14)

Today in class, we watched a segment of the video "World Conquerors" and then split up into our groups for the remaining 5 minutes of class.  I found this video to be helpful because it provided a couple of examples of Mongol cruelty and savagery, which I can use as evidence in the opening statement of our trial.  After watching the video, the prosecution met as a group and briefly held a discussion about the blog and twitter account we created.  The next step for me is to start gathering evidence which I can use in my opening statement and start creating a template for what I might include in my opening statement.  I am starting to think that a heartbreaking background story of one of our team's witnesses may be a great way to start off (and win) the trial...

At home, I posted on and added to our team blog.  I researched the role of a prosecutor and began developing the format of my team's opening statement.  I used the article Ms. Fishel provided us with in addition to an outside source.  From the outside source, I read about an actual murder case, which provided me with a rough idea of the general tonality of an opening statement and which types of information to include.  Some aspects of the opening statement I have learned about through my research are summarized in the following:

• Begin the statement with "Your Honor, my name is Shivesh, representing the prosecution in this case"
• Make the opening statement as intriguing and moving as possible
• I am thinking about creating a general outline for the presentation:
• Introductory statements
• Make sure to state the time frame and set place
• Thesis St. (strong statement convicting the Mongols of crimes against humanity)
• A sad, moving story, which portrays the Mongols as ruthless blood-thirsty beings
• The full details of the case
• Confidence is the key to swaying the judge (act 100% confident!)

From the notes I took on Chapter 18, I have begun to extract the details necessary to proving the guilt of the Mongols (not to be confused with the details regarding the circumstances during the terror of the Mongols).  I am now starting to narrow in on the exact details which I will use in my opening statement.

I think the entire Mongol Trial process is going very well (at least for the prosecution team...) and it has been a great learning experience so far.  I have researched and learned much about the justice system and the trial process.  The reading in the textbook provided context and historical reference, while other external sources helped me begin to formulate my opening statement.


Citations:

1. "The Wig Shop Murder." Criminaldefense.homestead.com. http://criminaldefense.homestead.com/Dror.html (accessed January 7, 2014).

Mongol Trial Day 1 (1/7/14)

During class yesterday, we discussed the definition of various crimes against humanity.  The crimes we will try to prove the Mongols guilty of are the following:

Terrorism - the act of causing fear, terror, or physical harm to others, usually for a specific reason or cause

Kidnapping - the deliberate stealing of a person for an intended reason without consent

Genocide -  the systematic, deliberate, mass-extermination of a race, culture, or a group of people


Today, our class was divided into the prosecution and defense groups.  After being divided, we designated the roles of witness or lawyer to each member.  The lawyer subgroup is responsible for the opening statement, cross-examination, direct examination, and closing statement.  I am now responsible for devising the opening statement of our argument.  In order to successfully make a strong opening statement, it is imperative that I acquire as much information as possible to back up the claim I am going to make.  Research, therefore, is the next on my list.

At home, I contributed to the team blog and wrote about what we did in class.  I completed reading and taking notes on Chapter 18: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration (posted below).  The information in the chapter provided a deeper understanding of the Mongolian Empire and the circumstances surrounding and pertaining to the atrocities committed by the Mongols.  In order to obtain a conviction against the Mongols, it is important to understand the Mongolian Empire on a higher perspective such as his code of ethics and moral values.

From this reading, I learned important information that will be crucial to framing the opening statement and proving the Mongols guilty of crimes against humanity.

Chapter 18: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration

Turkish Migrations and Imperial Expansion

Ø  Turkish people organized themselves into clans and tribes

o   Emerged after the fall of the Xiongnu confederation fell apart

o   Spoke related languages

·      Nomadic Economy and Society

o   Steppes of central Asia -> arid lands <- no large rivers -> no widespread agri.

§  Oases permitted intense agri. in limited regions

o   Nomads herded grazing animals (sheep and horses) on open land

§  Followed migratory cycles (seasons and climates)

§  Lived off the meat, milk, and hides of their animals (agri. is 2nd)

§  Fashioned tents (Yurts) out of wool + alcohol (kumiss) form milk

o   Trade is on a small scale (mainly food to serve immediate needs)

o   Organized + lead long-distance trade between China + Medit. due to mobility

o   Social classes -> Nobles and commoners

§  Nobles: don’t govern, but control the army in times of war (inherited)

§  Social class is fluid -> movement within hierarchy is possible

o   Religion revolves around the Shaman -> religious specialists who possess supernatural powers and communicate with the gods

§  Many convert to Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, and Manichaeism

§  Develop a written script

o   Turks near the Abbasids convert to Islam + spread Islam to Anatolia + India

o   Nomadic leaders org. confederations of peoples subject to the Khan (ruler)

o   Army is highly skilled and coordinated in cavalry (units coord. movement)

·      Turkish Empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India

o   Many Turks live on the border of the border of the Abbasid Empire

§  Are incorporated and eventually overshadow the caliph

·      Caliph recognizes Tughril Beg (Saljuq leader) as the Sultan

o   Consolidates his hold on Baghdad + expands his realm

o   Other Saljuq Turks migrate to Anatolia (breadbasket of the Byzantine)

§  Eventually crush Byzantine forces @ Manzikert + capture the emperor

·      Peasants in Anatolia look at the Saljuqs as liberators

§  Displace the Byzantines and set up their own pol. and soc. institutions

§  Tax the Byzantine Church and welcome converts to Islam

§  Ottoman Turks capture Byzantine capital @ Constantinople

o   Mahmud of Ghazni leads Turkish Ghaznavids of (Afghan.) on raids of N. India

§  Goal is to plunder…become interested in permanent rule

·      Create the Sultanate of Delhi (control of N. India)

§  Raids + represses Hindu and Buddhist temples and encourages Islam

The Mongol Empires

Ø  Mongols live on steppes of central Asia in clans and tribes + ally with Turks

Ø  Rarely play a lead role in the org. of states until Chinggis Khan unite them

·      Chinggis Khan and the Making of the Mongol Empire

o   Temujin’s father unifies the Mongols and forms alliances…but is poisoned by rivals

§  Alliance is destroyed and Temujin’s clan is plundered and destroyed

o   Temujin lives in poverty and is kidnapped by rivals…but escapes

o   Temujin makes alliances with powerful clans + strengthens his position

o   An assembly of Mongols proclaims him Chinggis Khan (“universal ruler”)

o   CK’s policies strengthen the Mongols

§  CK mistrusts the Mongols -> breaks up tribes and organizes them into military units of no tribal affiliation

§  Chooses officials with respect to their talent and loyalty

§  Establishes capital @ Karakorum (near modern day Ulaanbaatar)

o   CK’s army magnifies the power of the small population

§  Rely on equestrian skills + bows (multi-purposed)

§  Horsemen are extremely mobile

§  Understand the psychology ass. with war (spared lives if surrender)

o   CK attacks Tibet, China, Persia, and Central Asia

o   Conquest of N. China (inhabited by the Jurchen) (S. China belongs to Song)

§  Raids develop into conquest -> capture Jurchen Capital + rename it Khanbaliq (center of Mongol authority in China)

o   CK leads forces into Afghanistan + Persia (mainly to open trade + diplomacy)

§  Khwarazm Shah (rules after the Saljuqs) despises the Mongols

·      Orders CK’s envoys to be murdered

§  Mongols shatter KS’s army and gain control of his realm

§  Mongols destroy ALL KS’s cities (including qanats -> >agri.)

o   CK never est. a central gov…instead assigns Mongol overlords to supervise local admin.

·      The Mongol Empires After Chinggis Khan

o   CK’s death -> power vacuum -> empire is divided among his 4 sons

o   China is ruled by the Great Khans

§  Kublai Khan (CK’s most successful grandson) – ruled China

·      Most talented descendant who promotes Buddhism + culture

·      Generosity towards the poor and builds roads

§  Kublai attacks the S. Song from Khanbaliq base + captures Hangzhou

§  Kublai proclaims himself emperor and est. Yuan dynasty

§  Kublai attacks Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java…too tropical + don’t adapt well

·      Tries to attack Japan -> destroyed by typhoons (“Kamikaze”)

§  Mongols despise the Chinese and just want to extract $ from them

·      Bring foreign admin. to China and put them in charge

·      Resist assimilation to Chinese customs

o   Destroy Confucian Civil Service Exams

o   Still allow trade in absence of official support

·      Tolerate all religions but favor Nestorian Christianity

§  Ruling elites become ass. with Lamaist school of Buddhism in Tibet

·      Recognizes Mongols as rulers + as incarnations of Buddha

Khanate of Chaghatai is ruled by descendants of Chaghatai (1/4 CK’s sons)

o   Persia is ruled by the Ilkhans

§  Hülegü (Kublai’s bro) topples the Abbasids + est. the Mongol Ilkhanate

§   Captures Baghdad and ventures into Syria and Egypt

·      Are stopped by the Egyptians

§  Mongols make concessions to local interests (place Persians in charge of lower positions (basically, Persians just have to pay tax))

§  Most Mongols observe Shamanism but they tolerate all religions

§  Ilkhan Ghazan converts to Islam + others follow -> massacres of Jews + Christians

o   Russia is ruled by the Khans of the Golden Horde

§  Attack Germany, Poland, and Hungary…NOT Russia (unattractive)

·      But still exact tributary payments

§  Eventually lose control when Princes of Moscow reject its authority

o   Mongols aren’t experienced in administering complex soc. -> many fall apart

·      The Mongols and Eurasian Integration

o   Mongols bring destruction but link Eurasian lands via courier networks

o   Encouragement of travel -> facilitates trade, diplomatic travel, etc.

o   Khans fight amongst themselves but maintain order within their realm

§  -> + Long distance trade (China and Europe are linked 4 the 1^st time)

o   Realms maintain relationships via diplomatic embassies

§  Rabban Sauma – monk who visits Italy as Ilkhan embassy

o   Sufi missionaries popularize Islam among Turks

o   Resettling people in new lands -> people with specialized skills are transported to places where they are used

§  Uighur Turks -> provide secretaries, clerks, and units of soldiers

o   People with specialized skills are spared because of their talent

·      Decline of the Mongols in Persia and China

o   Difficulties in Ilkhan governing -> excessive spending strains treasury + exploitation of peasantry

§  Ilkhan tries to introduce paper $ -> merchants close shops (FAIL)

§  Last Mongol ruler dies without successor -> Ilkhanate collapses

o   Paper $ in China doesn’t retain its value in bullion -> prices rise sharply

§  Power struggles +rebellions + assassinations + Bubonic plague (Black Death) -> collapse

o   Khanate of Chaghatai prevails in central Asia

o   The Golden Horde continues to dominate the Caucasus until Russians rebel

After the Mongols

Ø  Turks resume their expansive campaigns + Tamerlane replaces Genghis Khan

·      Tamerlane the Whirlwind

o   Absence of Yuan -> power vacuum -> filled by the Ming Dynasty

o   Timur attacks Persia + takes Genghis Khan as his role model

§  Timur -> “Timur the Lame” -> Tamerlane

o   Extends is rue throughout the Khanate of Chaghatai + capital @ Samarkand

§  Attacks the Golden Horde + Delhi (doesn’t want India, though)

o   Tamerlane’s administration

§  Appoints overlords in the territories he conquers + relies on existing bureaucratic structures

o   After T’s death, his sons and grandsons divide the empire into 4 parts

§  Leads to the Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empire

·      The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire

o   After the Mongol conquest of Persia, Turks migrate from central Asia to the Ilkhanate

§  Follow Osman – leader who creates a small state in W. Anatolia

§  Declare independence from the Saljuq Sultan

o   Osman attracts followers due to Byzantine admin. weakness and become known as the Ottomans

o   O est.  a foothold across the Dardanelles @ Gallipoli

o   Capture Constantinople and take over the Byzantine empire

Eventually, Sultan Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) captures Constanti