Tuesday, January 7, 2014

Mongol Trial Day 1 (1/7/14)

During class yesterday, we discussed the definition of various crimes against humanity.  The crimes we will try to prove the Mongols guilty of are the following:

Terrorism - the act of causing fear, terror, or physical harm to others, usually for a specific reason or cause

Kidnapping - the deliberate stealing of a person for an intended reason without consent

Genocide -  the systematic, deliberate, mass-extermination of a race, culture, or a group of people


Today, our class was divided into the prosecution and defense groups.  After being divided, we designated the roles of witness or lawyer to each member.  The lawyer subgroup is responsible for the opening statement, cross-examination, direct examination, and closing statement.  I am now responsible for devising the opening statement of our argument.  In order to successfully make a strong opening statement, it is imperative that I acquire as much information as possible to back up the claim I am going to make.  Research, therefore, is the next on my list.

At home, I contributed to the team blog and wrote about what we did in class.  I completed reading and taking notes on Chapter 18: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration (posted below).  The information in the chapter provided a deeper understanding of the Mongolian Empire and the circumstances surrounding and pertaining to the atrocities committed by the Mongols.  In order to obtain a conviction against the Mongols, it is important to understand the Mongolian Empire on a higher perspective such as his code of ethics and moral values.

From this reading, I learned important information that will be crucial to framing the opening statement and proving the Mongols guilty of crimes against humanity.






Chapter 18: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration


Turkish Migrations and Imperial Expansion
Ø  Turkish people organized themselves into clans and tribes
o   Emerged after the fall of the Xiongnu confederation fell apart
o   Spoke related languages
·      Nomadic Economy and Society
o   Steppes of central Asia -> arid lands <- no large rivers -> no widespread agri.
§  Oases permitted intense agri. in limited regions
o   Nomads herded grazing animals (sheep and horses) on open land
§  Followed migratory cycles (seasons and climates)
§  Lived off the meat, milk, and hides of their animals (agri. is 2nd)
§  Fashioned tents (Yurts) out of wool + alcohol (kumiss) form milk
o   Trade is on a small scale (mainly food to serve immediate needs)
o   Organized + lead long-distance trade between China + Medit. due to mobility
o   Social classes -> Nobles and commoners
§  Nobles: don’t govern, but control the army in times of war (inherited)
§  Social class is fluid -> movement within hierarchy is possible
o   Religion revolves around the Shaman -> religious specialists who possess supernatural powers and communicate with the gods
§  Many convert to Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, and Manichaeism
§  Develop a written script
o   Turks near the Abbasids convert to Islam + spread Islam to Anatolia + India
o   Nomadic leaders org. confederations of peoples subject to the Khan (ruler)
o   Army is highly skilled and coordinated in cavalry (units coord. movement)
·      Turkish Empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India
o   Many Turks live on the border of the border of the Abbasid Empire
§  Are incorporated and eventually overshadow the caliph
·      Caliph recognizes Tughril Beg (Saljuq leader) as the Sultan
o   Consolidates his hold on Baghdad + expands his realm
o   Other Saljuq Turks migrate to Anatolia (breadbasket of the Byzantine)
§  Eventually crush Byzantine forces @ Manzikert + capture the emperor
·      Peasants in Anatolia look at the Saljuqs as liberators
§  Displace the Byzantines and set up their own pol. and soc. institutions
§  Tax the Byzantine Church and welcome converts to Islam
§  Ottoman Turks capture Byzantine capital @ Constantinople
o   Mahmud of Ghazni leads Turkish Ghaznavids of (Afghan.) on raids of N. India
§  Goal is to plunder…become interested in permanent rule
·      Create the Sultanate of Delhi (control of N. India)
§  Raids + represses Hindu and Buddhist temples and encourages Islam

The Mongol Empires
Ø  Mongols live on steppes of central Asia in clans and tribes + ally with Turks
Ø  Rarely play a lead role in the org. of states until Chinggis Khan unite them
·      Chinggis Khan and the Making of the Mongol Empire
o   Temujin’s father unifies the Mongols and forms alliances…but is poisoned by rivals
§  Alliance is destroyed and Temujin’s clan is plundered and destroyed
o   Temujin lives in poverty and is kidnapped by rivals…but escapes
o   Temujin makes alliances with powerful clans + strengthens his position
o   An assembly of Mongols proclaims him Chinggis Khan (“universal ruler”)
o   CK’s policies strengthen the Mongols
§  CK mistrusts the Mongols -> breaks up tribes and organizes them into military units of no tribal affiliation
§  Chooses officials with respect to their talent and loyalty
§  Establishes capital @ Karakorum (near modern day Ulaanbaatar)
o   CK’s army magnifies the power of the small population
§  Rely on equestrian skills + bows (multi-purposed)
§  Horsemen are extremely mobile
§  Understand the psychology ass. with war (spared lives if surrender)
o   CK attacks Tibet, China, Persia, and Central Asia
o   Conquest of N. China (inhabited by the Jurchen) (S. China belongs to Song)
§  Raids develop into conquest -> capture Jurchen Capital + rename it Khanbaliq (center of Mongol authority in China)
o   CK leads forces into Afghanistan + Persia (mainly to open trade + diplomacy)
§  Khwarazm Shah (rules after the Saljuqs) despises the Mongols
·      Orders CK’s envoys to be murdered
§  Mongols shatter KS’s army and gain control of his realm
§  Mongols destroy ALL KS’s cities (including qanats -> >agri.)
o   CK never est. a central gov…instead assigns Mongol overlords to supervise local admin.
·      The Mongol Empires After Chinggis Khan
o   CK’s death -> power vacuum -> empire is divided among his 4 sons
o   China is ruled by the Great Khans
§  Kublai Khan (CK’s most successful grandson) – ruled China
·      Most talented descendant who promotes Buddhism + culture
·      Generosity towards the poor and builds roads
§  Kublai attacks the S. Song from Khanbaliq base + captures Hangzhou
§  Kublai proclaims himself emperor and est. Yuan dynasty
§  Kublai attacks Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java…too tropical + don’t adapt well
·      Tries to attack Japan -> destroyed by typhoons (“Kamikaze”)
§  Mongols despise the Chinese and just want to extract $ from them
·      Bring foreign admin. to China and put them in charge
·      Resist assimilation to Chinese customs
o   Destroy Confucian Civil Service Exams
o   Still allow trade in absence of official support
·      Tolerate all religions but favor Nestorian Christianity
§  Ruling elites become ass. with Lamaist school of Buddhism in Tibet
·      Recognizes Mongols as rulers + as incarnations of Buddha
Khanate of Chaghatai is ruled by descendants of Chaghatai (1/4 CK’s sons)
o   Persia is ruled by the Ilkhans
§  Hülegü (Kublai’s bro) topples the Abbasids + est. the Mongol Ilkhanate
§   Captures Baghdad and ventures into Syria and Egypt
·      Are stopped by the Egyptians
§  Mongols make concessions to local interests (place Persians in charge of lower positions (basically, Persians just have to pay tax))
§  Most Mongols observe Shamanism but they tolerate all religions
§  Ilkhan Ghazan converts to Islam + others follow -> massacres of Jews + Christians
o   Russia is ruled by the Khans of the Golden Horde
§  Attack Germany, Poland, and Hungary…NOT Russia (unattractive)
·      But still exact tributary payments
§  Eventually lose control when Princes of Moscow reject its authority
o   Mongols aren’t experienced in administering complex soc. -> many fall apart
·      The Mongols and Eurasian Integration
o   Mongols bring destruction but link Eurasian lands via courier networks
o   Encouragement of travel -> facilitates trade, diplomatic travel, etc.
o   Khans fight amongst themselves but maintain order within their realm
§  -> + Long distance trade (China and Europe are linked 4 the 1st time)
o   Realms maintain relationships via diplomatic embassies
§  Rabban Sauma – monk who visits Italy as Ilkhan embassy
o   Sufi missionaries popularize Islam among Turks
o   Resettling people in new lands -> people with specialized skills are transported to places where they are used
§  Uighur Turks -> provide secretaries, clerks, and units of soldiers
o   People with specialized skills are spared because of their talent
·      Decline of the Mongols in Persia and China
o   Difficulties in Ilkhan governing -> excessive spending strains treasury + exploitation of peasantry
§  Ilkhan tries to introduce paper $ -> merchants close shops (FAIL)
§  Last Mongol ruler dies without successor -> Ilkhanate collapses
o   Paper $ in China doesn’t retain its value in bullion -> prices rise sharply
§  Power struggles +rebellions + assassinations + Bubonic plague (Black Death) -> collapse
o   Khanate of Chaghatai prevails in central Asia
o   The Golden Horde continues to dominate the Caucasus until Russians rebel

After the Mongols
Ø  Turks resume their expansive campaigns + Tamerlane replaces Genghis Khan
·      Tamerlane the Whirlwind
o   Absence of Yuan -> power vacuum -> filled by the Ming Dynasty
o   Timur attacks Persia + takes Genghis Khan as his role model
§  Timur -> “Timur the Lame” -> Tamerlane
o   Extends is rue throughout the Khanate of Chaghatai + capital @ Samarkand
§  Attacks the Golden Horde + Delhi (doesn’t want India, though)
o   Tamerlane’s administration
§  Appoints overlords in the territories he conquers + relies on existing bureaucratic structures
o   After T’s death, his sons and grandsons divide the empire into 4 parts
§  Leads to the Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empire
·      The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire
o   After the Mongol conquest of Persia, Turks migrate from central Asia to the Ilkhanate
§  Follow Osman – leader who creates a small state in W. Anatolia
§  Declare independence from the Saljuq Sultan
o   Osman attracts followers due to Byzantine admin. weakness and become known as the Ottomans
o   O est.  a foothold across the Dardanelles @ Gallipoli
o   Capture Constantinople and take over the Byzantine empire
Eventually, Sultan Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) captures Constanti

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