Terrorism - the act of causing fear, terror, or physical harm to others, usually for a specific reason or cause
Kidnapping - the deliberate stealing of a person for an intended reason without consent
Genocide - the systematic, deliberate, mass-extermination of a race, culture, or a group of people
Today, our class was divided into the prosecution and defense groups. After being divided, we designated the roles of witness or lawyer to each member. The lawyer subgroup is responsible for the opening statement, cross-examination, direct examination, and closing statement. I am now responsible for devising the opening statement of our argument. In order to successfully make a strong opening statement, it is imperative that I acquire as much information as possible to back up the claim I am going to make. Research, therefore, is the next on my list.
At home, I contributed to the team blog and wrote about what we did in class. I completed reading and taking notes on Chapter 18: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration (posted below). The information in the chapter provided a deeper understanding of the Mongolian Empire and the circumstances surrounding and pertaining to the atrocities committed by the Mongols. In order to obtain a conviction against the Mongols, it is important to understand the Mongolian Empire on a higher perspective such as his code of ethics and moral values.
From this reading, I learned important information that will be crucial to framing the opening statement and proving the Mongols guilty of crimes against humanity.
Chapter 18: Nomadic Empires and
Eurasian Integration
Turkish Migrations and Imperial Expansion
Ø
Turkish people organized themselves into clans
and tribes
o
Emerged after the fall of the Xiongnu
confederation fell apart
o
Spoke related languages
·
Nomadic
Economy and Society
o
Steppes of central Asia -> arid lands <-
no large rivers -> no widespread agri.
§
Oases permitted intense agri. in limited regions
o
Nomads herded grazing animals (sheep and horses)
on open land
§
Followed migratory cycles (seasons and climates)
§
Lived off the meat, milk, and hides of their
animals (agri. is 2nd)
§
Fashioned tents (Yurts) out of wool + alcohol
(kumiss) form milk
o
Trade is on a small scale (mainly food to serve
immediate needs)
o
Organized + lead long-distance trade between
China + Medit. due to mobility
o
Social classes -> Nobles and commoners
§
Nobles: don’t govern, but control the army in
times of war (inherited)
§
Social class is fluid -> movement within
hierarchy is possible
o
Religion revolves around the Shaman ->
religious specialists who possess supernatural powers and communicate with the
gods
§
Many convert to Buddhism, Nestorian
Christianity, and Manichaeism
§
Develop a written script
o
Turks near the Abbasids convert to Islam +
spread Islam to Anatolia + India
o
Nomadic leaders org. confederations of peoples
subject to the Khan (ruler)
o
Army is highly skilled and coordinated in
cavalry (units coord. movement)
·
Turkish
Empires in Persia, Anatolia, and India
o
Many Turks live on the border of the border of
the Abbasid Empire
§
Are incorporated and eventually overshadow the
caliph
·
Caliph recognizes Tughril Beg (Saljuq leader) as
the Sultan
o
Consolidates his hold on Baghdad + expands his
realm
o
Other Saljuq Turks migrate to Anatolia
(breadbasket of the Byzantine)
§
Eventually crush Byzantine forces @ Manzikert +
capture the emperor
·
Peasants in Anatolia look at the Saljuqs as
liberators
§
Displace the Byzantines and set up their own
pol. and soc. institutions
§
Tax the Byzantine Church and welcome converts to
Islam
§
Ottoman Turks capture Byzantine capital @
Constantinople
o
Mahmud of Ghazni leads Turkish Ghaznavids of
(Afghan.) on raids of N. India
§
Goal is to plunder…become interested in
permanent rule
·
Create the Sultanate of Delhi (control of N.
India)
§
Raids + represses Hindu and Buddhist temples and
encourages Islam
The Mongol Empires
Ø
Mongols live on steppes of central Asia in clans
and tribes + ally with Turks
Ø
Rarely play a lead role in the org. of states
until Chinggis Khan unite them
·
Chinggis
Khan and the Making of the Mongol Empire
o
Temujin’s father unifies the Mongols and forms
alliances…but is poisoned by rivals
§
Alliance is destroyed and Temujin’s clan is
plundered and destroyed
o
Temujin lives in poverty and is kidnapped by
rivals…but escapes
o
Temujin makes alliances with powerful clans +
strengthens his position
o
An assembly of Mongols proclaims him Chinggis
Khan (“universal ruler”)
o
CK’s policies strengthen the Mongols
§
CK mistrusts the Mongols -> breaks up tribes
and organizes them into military units of no tribal affiliation
§
Chooses officials with respect to their talent
and loyalty
§
Establishes capital @ Karakorum (near modern day
Ulaanbaatar)
o
CK’s army magnifies the power of the small
population
§
Rely on equestrian skills + bows
(multi-purposed)
§
Horsemen are extremely mobile
§
Understand the psychology ass. with war (spared
lives if surrender)
o
CK attacks Tibet, China, Persia, and Central
Asia
o
Conquest of N. China (inhabited by the Jurchen)
(S. China belongs to Song)
§
Raids develop into conquest -> capture
Jurchen Capital + rename it Khanbaliq (center of Mongol authority in China)
o
CK leads forces into Afghanistan + Persia
(mainly to open trade + diplomacy)
§
Khwarazm Shah (rules after the Saljuqs) despises
the Mongols
·
Orders CK’s envoys to be murdered
§
Mongols shatter KS’s army and gain control of
his realm
§
Mongols destroy ALL KS’s cities (including
qanats -> >agri.)
o
CK never est. a central gov…instead assigns
Mongol overlords to supervise local admin.
·
The
Mongol Empires After Chinggis Khan
o
CK’s death -> power vacuum -> empire is
divided among his 4 sons
o
China is ruled by the Great Khans
§
Kublai Khan (CK’s most successful grandson) –
ruled China
·
Most talented descendant who promotes Buddhism +
culture
·
Generosity towards the poor and builds roads
§
Kublai attacks the S. Song from Khanbaliq base +
captures Hangzhou
§
Kublai proclaims himself emperor and est. Yuan
dynasty
§
Kublai attacks Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma,
Java…too tropical + don’t adapt well
·
Tries to attack Japan -> destroyed by
typhoons (“Kamikaze”)
§
Mongols despise the Chinese and just want to
extract $ from them
·
Bring foreign admin. to China and put them in
charge
·
Resist assimilation to Chinese customs
o
Destroy Confucian Civil Service Exams
o
Still allow trade in absence of official support
·
Tolerate all religions but favor Nestorian
Christianity
§
Ruling elites become ass. with Lamaist school of
Buddhism in Tibet
·
Recognizes Mongols as rulers + as incarnations
of Buddha
Khanate of Chaghatai is ruled by descendants of Chaghatai (1/4 CK’s sons)
o
Persia is ruled by the Ilkhans
§
Hülegü (Kublai’s bro) topples the Abbasids +
est. the Mongol Ilkhanate
§
Captures
Baghdad and ventures into Syria and Egypt
·
Are stopped by the Egyptians
§
Mongols make concessions to local interests
(place Persians in charge of lower positions (basically, Persians just have to
pay tax))
§
Most Mongols observe Shamanism but they tolerate
all religions
§
Ilkhan Ghazan converts to Islam + others follow
-> massacres of Jews + Christians
o
Russia is ruled by the Khans of the Golden Horde
§
Attack Germany, Poland, and Hungary…NOT Russia
(unattractive)
·
But still exact tributary payments
§
Eventually lose control when Princes of Moscow
reject its authority
o
Mongols aren’t experienced in administering
complex soc. -> many fall apart
·
The
Mongols and Eurasian Integration
o
Mongols bring destruction but link Eurasian
lands via courier networks
o
Encouragement of travel -> facilitates trade,
diplomatic travel, etc.
o
Khans fight amongst themselves but maintain
order within their realm
§
-> + Long distance trade (China and Europe
are linked 4 the 1st time)
o
Realms maintain relationships via diplomatic embassies
§
Rabban Sauma – monk who visits Italy as Ilkhan
embassy
o
Sufi missionaries popularize Islam among Turks
o
Resettling people in new lands -> people with
specialized skills are transported to places where they are used
§
Uighur Turks -> provide secretaries, clerks,
and units of soldiers
o
People with specialized skills are spared
because of their talent
·
Decline
of the Mongols in Persia and China
o
Difficulties in Ilkhan governing -> excessive
spending strains treasury + exploitation of peasantry
§
Ilkhan tries to introduce paper $ ->
merchants close shops (FAIL)
§
Last Mongol ruler dies without successor ->
Ilkhanate collapses
o
Paper $ in China doesn’t retain its value in
bullion -> prices rise sharply
§
Power struggles +rebellions + assassinations +
Bubonic plague (Black Death) -> collapse
o
Khanate of Chaghatai prevails in central Asia
o
The Golden Horde continues to dominate the
Caucasus until Russians rebel
After the Mongols
Ø
Turks resume their expansive campaigns +
Tamerlane replaces Genghis Khan
·
Tamerlane
the Whirlwind
o
Absence of Yuan -> power vacuum -> filled
by the Ming Dynasty
o
Timur attacks Persia + takes Genghis Khan as his
role model
§
Timur -> “Timur the Lame” -> Tamerlane
o
Extends is rue throughout the Khanate of
Chaghatai + capital @ Samarkand
§
Attacks the Golden Horde + Delhi (doesn’t want
India, though)
o
Tamerlane’s administration
§
Appoints overlords in the territories he
conquers + relies on existing bureaucratic structures
o
After T’s death, his sons and grandsons divide
the empire into 4 parts
§
Leads to the Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman Empire
·
The
Foundation of the Ottoman Empire
o
After the Mongol conquest of Persia, Turks
migrate from central Asia to the Ilkhanate
§
Follow Osman – leader who creates a small state
in W. Anatolia
§
Declare independence from the Saljuq Sultan
o
Osman attracts followers due to Byzantine admin.
weakness and become known as the Ottomans
o
O est. a
foothold across the Dardanelles @ Gallipoli
o
Capture Constantinople and take over the Byzantine
empire
Eventually, Sultan Mehmed II (Mehmed the
Conqueror) captures Constanti
